ENHANCING URBAN SECURITY IN DIGITAL AGE

Introduction

As urbanization accelerates globally, cities are becoming increasingly complex ecosystems characterized by dense populations, diverse cultures, and intricate infrastructures. This rapid urban growth, while offering numerous opportunities for economic development and social interaction, also presents significant challenges, particularly in the realm of security. The digital age has transformed the landscape of urban security, introducing both innovative solutions and new vulnerabilities. The integration of technology into urban environments has led to the emergence of smart cities, where data-driven approaches promise to enhance safety and improve the quality of life for residents. However, this digital transformation also raises critical concerns regarding privacy, cybersecurity, and the potential for misuse of technology. In this context, urban security encompasses a broad spectrum of issues, including crime prevention, emergency response, and the protection of critical infrastructure. The advent of digital tools such as surveillance systems, social media, and big data analytics has revolutionized how cities monitor and respond to security threats. For instance, real-time data collection and analysis enable law enforcement agencies to deploy resources more effectively and anticipate criminal activity. However, the reliance on technology also poses significant risks, including the potential for data breaches, algorithmic bias, and the erosion of civil liberties. Moreover, the digital age has given rise to new forms of crime such as cybercrime and terrorism which challenge traditional security paradigms. Urban areas, with their high concentration of people and resources, are particularly vulnerable to these threats. The COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted the importance of urban security, as cities grappled with public health crisis that required coordinated responses and innovative solutions. As we navigate this complex landscape, it is crucial to understand the multifaceted challenges that urban security faces in the digital age and to explore the pathways forward that can enhance safety while respecting individual rights. Urbanization has transformed cities into densely populated hubs, demanding robust security measures to safeguard citizens, infrastructure, and assets.

As urban landscapes continue evolving, so do the associated security challenges. The digital age has ushered in smart cities with interconnected systems, which simultaneously enhance living standards and expose vulnerabilities. The need for enhanced urban security has never been more pressing, with digitalization adding new dimensions to traditional threats. Today’s urban environments are susceptible to both physical threats and cyber-attacks, necessitating a comprehensive approach that integrates digital and physical security infrastructures. Examining the interplay between technology and safety, the implications of emerging threats, and the strategies that cities can adopt to create resilient urban environments. By analyzing current trends and case studies, an attempt has been made here to outline the road ahead for urban security; emphasizing the need for a balanced approach that leverages technological advancements while safeguarding the rights and freedoms of citizens.

“The modern security landscape is no longer defined by physical borders but by cyber boundaries and digital infrastructures”

Current security landscape

The urban security framework has traditionally relied on physical measures such as law enforcement, surveillance systems, and human vigilance. Cities have incorporated technological advancements like CCTV surveillance, biometric access control, and digital communication systems. However, these systems often function in silos, limiting their overall effectiveness. Collaboration between the public and private sectors has increased, but a unified, interoperable security network is still lacking. Moreover, the rapidly evolving nature of threats, including cyber-attacks and urban terrorism, requires constant adaptation of existing measures. The increasing complexity of cities, driven by digital transformation, calls for a re-evaluation of current strategies to address both conventional and modern risks.

“IoT is transforming urban security by facilitating seamless communication between devices, allowing secu- rity systems to act autonomously and respond to threats faster than tradi- tional methods”

Impact of emerging technologies on urban digitization

The introduction of emerging technologies is reshaping urban environments in profound ways. The Internet of Things (IoT) is now embedded in critical urban infrastructure, connecting everything from traffic lights to public utilities. While IoT enhances operational efficiency, it also increases exposure to cyber threats, as each connected device becomes a potential point of vulnerability. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are revolutionizing security operations by enabling predictive analytics, automated surveillance, and advanced threat detection. These technologies provide real-time insights, allowing for proactive security interventions and more effective resource allocation. Drones and robotics have introduced new dimensions to urban surveillance and patrolling, offering enhanced coverage and rapid response capabilities. These systems reduce the risk to human life during high-risk operations such as disaster response and crowd control, while improving efficiency. Big data analytics have become invaluable in understanding crime patterns and preventing criminal activities. By analyzing vast datasets, cities can allocate resources more effectively, predict security breaches, and manage urban risks in real time. Cybersecurity has emerged as a critical concern as urban infrastructure becomes more digitized. Cities are increasingly vulnerable to hacking, ransomware, and data breaches, which can disrupt essential services like transportation, healthcare, and public utilities. Ensuring the cybersecurity of urban infrastructure is now a key component of any comprehensive urban security strategy.

a) Internet of Things (IoT) and Security Ecosystem.

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to interconnected devices that collect, exchange and analyze data in real-time. In the context of urban security, IoT has transformed how cities manage and monitor safety. The proliferation of IoT devices in urban environments creates a dense network of interconnected sensors and systems that can offer real-time insights into security threats. Smart cameras, sensors, streetlights, and traffic systems connected via IoT networks provide city administrators and law enforcement with valuable real-time data.

Impact

• Real-time monitoring and control: IoT-enabled cameras, environmental sensors, and smart meters are used to monitor city infrastructure and control systems like streetlights, traffic signals, and parking management. Real-time control can significantly improve traffic management and emergency response coordination. Smart streetlights in San Diego are fitted with IoT sensors that collect data about traffic flow, parking patterns, and pedestrian activity. This system provides city officials with the ability to monitor and enhance urban security through efficient resource allocation. The use of IoT-based smart streetlights in cities like Barcelona and Chicago has not only improved energy efficiency but also boosted surveillance capabilities. These lights can detect environmental changes and send real-time alerts to local authorities.
• Smart homes and buildings: IoT technology is also transforming residential and commercial security. Smart door locks, cameras, and motion sensors connected to centralized control systems allow building managers to monitor access in real-time and automate responses such as locking doors when unauthorized access is detected.
• Integration with emergency services: IoT networks in cities are linked with emergency response systems, allowing faster coordination between fire, police, and medical services. For instance, when a fire alarm is triggered in a smart building, the system can automatically notify fire services and provide real-time information about building occupancy and escape routes. Songdo (South Korea) is the entire city built around IoT technology, where everything from garbage disposal to traffic management is controlled through interconnected sensors. The city is a living example of how IoT can enhance urban security, making it easier to monitor public spaces and respond to incidents more quickly. By continuously collecting data from various urban touchpoints, IoT-enabled devices can predict and prevent incidents like traffic accidents, unauthorized access, or potential crime. These systems can detect anomalies such as unattended packages or unusual movements, triggering alerts for immediate intervention.

“With the integration of AI, urban security systems have become more proactive, leveraging facial recognition, behavior analysis, and automated surveillance to detect and respond to threats before they escalate”

b) Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) in Security.

AI is revolutionizing how urban security systems operate by introducing predictive, autonomous, and data-driven decision-making into real-time surveillance and threat detection. AI and Machine Learning (ML) are critical tools reshaping the security ecosystem by providing advanced capabilities for detecting, analyzing, and responding to threats in real time. AI-powered surveillance systems can autonomously monitor public spaces, detect suspicious activities, and recognize patterns that human operators may miss. Facial recognition technology, for example, allows for the identification of wanted criminals in crowded areas. In ML algorithms can analyze historical crime data to predict future incidents. This data-driven approach helps allocate resources to high-risk areas, allowing law enforcement to intervene before a crime occurs. AI systems are increasingly being used in decision-making processes such as granting access to restricted areas based on real-time behavioral patterns.

Impact

• Automated threat detection: AI can analyze vast amounts of data from surveillance cameras and sensors to detect unusual behavior or potential threats. This goes beyond basic motion detection to identifying specific suspicious actions such as a person leaving a bag unattended or moving in a restricted zone.
• Natural language processing (NLP): AI-powered systems can monitor communication channels such as social media or public communication platforms, to identify potential threats in real time, including detecting hate speech, planning of violent acts, or mob formations.
• AI-driven crime mapping: Machine Learning models can analyze historical crime data to predict future hot spots of criminal activity, enabling law enforcement to deploy resources more effectively. For example, AI systems can predict where burglaries are likely to occur based on patterns in local crime data. London (UK) – is the city that uses AI-powered facial recognition systems to scan crowds in public spaces. This has been instrumental in identifying suspects and missing persons in real time, enhancing the safety of large gatherings. In New York City (USA), AI is integrated into the city’s security cameras to detect unusual patterns of movement such as loitering or erratic behavior, allowing quicker intervention by law enforcement. In Dubai, AI is used in the ‘Smart Police Stations,’ which provide 24/7 services like reporting crimes and paying fines without the need for human interaction. AI-based policing in these areas has reduced response times and enhanced community security.

c) Blockchain Technology for Secure Data Sharing.

Blockchain’s role in urban security is gaining importance due to its ability to provide secure, immutable, and transparent ways to store and share sensitive information. Blockchain, known for its use in cryptocurrency, is also emerging as a crucial technology for securing urban infrastructure and enhancing data transparency in security operations. Blockchain’s decentralized nature ensures that no single point of failure exists, making it ideal for securing critical data in urban security systems. By recording data in an immutable ledger, Blockchain prevents tampering and unauthorized access. In urban security, Blockchain can be used to authenticate identities, whether it’s for secure access to buildings or verifying the identity of law enforcement personnel. It guarantees that data collected from IoT devices or surveillance systems is authentic and has not been altered.

Impact – Its impact can be best illustrated from its multiple usage in:

• Immutable record-keeping: Blockchain can securely log access to critical infrastructure or public safety systems. This ensures that unauthorized tampering or interference is quickly identified, as any attempt to modify records will be immediately flagged.
• Supply chain security: Blockchain technology is increasingly being used to track the supply chain of essential goods and services in cities. For instance, critical equipment such as surveillance cameras or public safety vehicles can be verified using Blockchain to ensure that they haven’t been tampered with during shipment. Blockchain smart contracts can be applied to enforce security agreements automatically. For instance, security service providers could automate payment processing for services once agreed-upon conditions (such as the completion of a patrol) are met, reducing the possibility of fraud.
• Public identity management: Urban security can benefit from Blockchain by creating tamper-proof records of citizens’ identities, helping to prevent identity theft and fraud in public services such as issuing driver’s licenses or welfare benefits. Estonia has fully embraced Blockchain to secure its national ID system, which is used by residents to access government services securely. This tamper-proof identity management system has significantly enhanced the nation’s cybersecurity posture. Dubai is using Blockchain to enhance the security of public service records, ensuring that all municipal transactions, including permits, criminal records, and utility bills, are stored in a secure and immutable manner. The city of Dubai has initiated Blockchain-based security solutions for government data to enhance transparency and ensure secure, tamper-proof public services, including law enforcement databases and citizen identity management.

“In the digital age, robots are becoming vital to urban security, from monitoring public spaces with advanced sensors to assisting law enforcement with tasks that are too dangerous or labor-intensive for humans”

(d) Robotics in Security and Public Safety

Robots are increasingly supplementing human efforts in security, offering new capabilities in surveillance, patrolling, and emergency response. Robotics is playing an increasingly important role in augmenting human security efforts, especially in hazardous environments or large-scale urban operations. Security robots equipped with cameras, sensors and AI are being deployed for surveillance and patrolling tasks. These robots can monitor public spaces, identify intruders, and respond to incidents without the need for human presence, reducing the risk to security personnel. Drones and robots are essential tools for handling emergency situations such as natural disasters or terrorist attacks. They can navigate dangerous environments like collapsed buildings to locate survivors or assess damage without endangering human responders. Robotic systems can operate continuously without fatigue, enabling them to cover large areas more consistently than human security guards. This is particularly useful in large urban spaces like airports or shopping malls.

Impact

• Automated security patrols: Robots equipped with AI and advanced sensors can conduct autonomous patrols in high-risk areas such as airports, stadiums, or industrial zones. They can detect unauthorized entry, monitor environmental conditions, and alert human operators if necessary.
• Bomb detection and disposal: In hazardous situations, robots equipped with manipulators and explosives detectors are increasingly being used to neutralize bombs or hazardous materials, significantly reducing the risk to human life. Singapore has implemented autonomous security robots in public spaces like shopping malls and government buildings. These robots perform routine patrols, detect unusual behavior, and provide real-time alerts to central command centers.
• Firefighting and rescue Robots: Some cities are deploying fire-fighting robots that can enter dangerous environments such as burning buildings, to fight fires or locate trapped victims. These robots can operate in extreme conditions where human firefighters might be at risk. The Singapore Police Force uses robots to patrol public spaces, scan for potential threats, and report incidents in real time. The robots are equipped with cameras, speakers, and sensors to interact with the public and gather data. In China, police robots have been deployed in airports and railway stations. They provide security assistance to passengers and monitor real-time data to detect any potential security breaches.

“Cybersecurity is the backbone of urban security in the digital age, safeguarding critical infrastructure, data systems, and communication networks from digital threats that could cripple modern cities”

(e) Cyber Attacks and Urban Security Vulnerabilities

Cybersecurity is now a critical component of urban security as cities become more digitized, and the risks associated with cyber-attacks on urban infrastructure have grown. With increased digitization, urban environments have become prime targets for cyber-attacks, threatening both digital and physical security systems. Cyber-attacks on critical infrastructure such as power grids, water supply systems, and transportation networks, can cause widespread disruption. Cities are particularly vulnerable to ransomware attacks that can cripple services and demand large sums for system restoration. As cities collect massive amounts of data through surveillance cameras, IoT devices, and digital platforms, the risk of data breaches grows. Sensitive information like citizen identities, financial data, and public records can be stolen and misused. Cyber-attacks targeting physical security systems like access control, smart locks, or surveillance cameras can compromise entire urban security networks. Hackers can disable security systems or use them to gather intelligence for criminal activities.

Impact

• Critical infrastructure threats: Cities rely on digital infrastructure for essential services like electricity, water, and transportation. Cyber-attacks targeting this infrastructure can result in widespread disruptions, paralyzing entire urban areas and threatening public safety.
• State-sponsored cyber attacks: Urban areas are increasingly becoming targets for state-sponsored cyber-attacks aimed at disrupting national security. These attacks often target critical infrastructure or sensitive public data.
• IoT devices as attack vectors: Many IoT devices used in urban security systems are vulnerable to cyber-attacks. Hackers can exploit these devices to gain access to larger networks, enabling them to disable security systems, steal data, or cause physical damage to infrastructure. Ukraine Power Grid Attack (2015): A cyber-attack on Ukraine’s power grid left parts of the country without power for hours. This event highlighted the vulnerability of urban infrastructure to cyber threats. Atlanta Ransomware Attack (2018): The city of Atlanta was hit by a ransomware attack that affected many of its municipal services, from court records to utility services, demonstrating the potential for widespread disruption from cyber-attacks on urban infrastructure. In 2019, the city of Baltimore faced a crippling ransomware attack that paralyzed its municipal services for weeks, highlighting the vulnerability of urban infrastructure to cyber threats.

“Drones are the new frontier of urban security, combining speed, mobility, and data collection capabilities to deliver real-time intelligence and enhance decision-making in dynamic environments”

(f) Drones and Aerial Surveillance

Drones offer unprecedented capabilities for surveillance, monitoring, and rapid response, but they also pose unique challenges for urban security. Drones are increasingly being used for aerial surveillance, crowd monitoring and rapid-response operations in urban environments. Drones equipped with high-resolution cameras and sensors can monitor large areas from above, offering real-time video feeds to law enforcement. This capability is particularly useful during large public events or demonstrations where ground surveillance might be limited. Drones can be deployed quickly to respond to incidents such as traffic accidents or natural disasters, providing real-time situational awareness to first responders. In hostile situations, drones can be used to assess risks without endangering human lives.

Impact

• Rapid response to emergencies: Drones equipped with cameras and sensors can provide real-time aerial footage of incidents such as accidents, fires, or terrorist attacks, enabling authorities to respond more quickly and effectively.
• Crowd control and event security: Drones are increasingly being used to monitor large public events, protests, or concerts, offering a bird’s-eye view that helps security personnel manage crowds and detect potential threats.
• Security threats from Rogue Drones: While drones offer significant benefits, they can also pose security threats. Unauthorized drones can be used to conduct surveillance, carry out cyber-attacks, or even deliver explosives, raising concerns about how to regulate and control their usage. In Paris, France Drones were deployed during the 2019 Notre-Dame fire to provide real-time aerial footage that helped firefighters assess the damage and plan their response, highlighting the value of drones in emergency management. In Japan, during the 2020 Olympics, drones were used for crowd management and aerial surveillance, ensuring the safety of the large number of attendees and helping law enforcement monitor potential security threats. The Indian city of Varanasi deployed drones during the COVID-19 pandemic to enforce social distancing and monitor public spaces, showcasing the role of drones in ensuring urban security.

Reshaping the security ecosystem

Urban security is undergoing a transformation as digital technologies become more integral to city infrastructure. A shift towards a more integrated and proactive approach to security is necessary. This approach must combine physical, digital, and human elements to create a holistic security ecosystem. Smart cities offer an opportunity to embed security systems within urban infrastructure. For example, surveillance systems can be integrated into traffic management, emergency response, and public safety networks. By aligning security measures with urban planning, cities can respond more swiftly and efficiently to emerging threats. Digital twin technology allows urban planners and security experts to simulate real-world environments. This technology can be used to test security measures, assess risks, and plan for crisis scenarios, offering cities a virtual testing ground to refine their security strategies. Public engagement is essential for urban security in the digital age. Smart governance platforms enable citizens to report incidents, access real-time information, and participate in the city’s security framework. By involving the public, cities can enhance situational awareness and build trust between citizens and law enforcement.

Challenges in the transition

The transition to a digitally integrated urban security ecosystem presents several challenges. Cybersecurity remains a major concern, with the increasing risk of surveillance overreach, data breaches, and potential abuse of security technologies. Balancing security with individual privacy rights requires careful consideration, particularly in cities where surveillance systems are pervasive. Legacy systems pose another challenge. Many urban security infrastructures are outdated, making it difficult to integrate new technologies without significant overhauls. Cities must invest in upgrading these systems to ensure compatibility with emerging technologies. Skill gaps within the workforce further complicate the adoption of advanced security technologies. Security personnel often lack the technical expertise to manage AI-driven systems, cybersecurity protocols, and other digital tools. Continuous training is essential to equip personnel with the skills needed to operate and maintain these technologies. Financial constraints also pose a barrier to widespread adoption of cutting-edge security solutions. The costs of deploying IoT networks, AI-driven analytics, and other technologies can be prohibitive, especially for developing cities with limited budgets. Regulatory and legal frameworks often lag behind technological advancements. Data protection laws, jurisdictional issues, and cross-border cyber threats complicate the implementation of security measures in digitized urban environments. Cities must develop agile regulatory frameworks that keep pace with technology while protecting citizens’ rights.

1. Internet of Things (IoT) and Security Ecosystem. While IoT devices significantly enhance security efficiency, they also introduce vulnerabilities. Each IoT device represents a potential entry point for hackers. If compromised, these devices can lead to widespread system failures or malicious control of critical infrastructure such as water supplies, traffic systems, or power grids.
2. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) in Security. AI systems require large datasets, and their effectiveness is often dependent on the quality and diversity of this data. Moreover, ethical concerns, including privacy issues and biases in algorithms, have raised questions about the widespread use of AI in public spaces.
3. Blockchain Technology for Secure Data Sharing. The high computational requirements of Blockchain and its slow transaction speeds can make it difficult to integrate into real-time urban security systems.
4. Robotics in Security and Public Safety. Robots require substantial initial investment, and their capabilities are still limited by current AI technologies. They also raise concerns about job displacement among human security personnel.
5. Cyber Attacks and Urban Security Vulnerabilities. The complexity of urban infrastructure makes it difficult to secure all points of vulnerability. Additionally, legacy systems often lack the necessary cybersecurity protections, making them easy targets for hackers.
6. Drones and Aerial Surveillance. Drones also pose potential security threats. Unregulated or malicious use of drones can lead to breaches in airspace security or even terrorism, where drones can be weaponized to cause harm.

Road map for enhancing urban security

To effectively navigate the complexities of urban security in the digital age, several key recommendations can be made.

• Adopt a Holistic Security Framework: Cities should develop integrated security strategies that encompass physical, digital, and social dimensions. This involves collaboration among various stakeholders, including law enforcement, technology providers, urban planners, and community organizations, to create a comprehensive approach to safety.
• Invest in Cybersecurity Infrastructure: As urban environments become increasingly reliant on digital technologies, robust cybersecurity measures must be prioritized. This includes regular assessments of vulnerabilities, investment in secure systems, and training for personnel to respond effectively to cyber threats.
• Implement Transparent Surveillance Policies: To maintain public trust, cities should establish clear guidelines regarding the use of surveillance technologies. This includes transparency about data collection practices, the purpose of surveillance, and the rights of individuals regarding their data. Engaging the community in these discussions can foster a sense of ownership and accountability.
• Foster Interagency Collaboration: Urban security is a shared responsibility that requires collaboration across various sectors and agencies. Establishing partnerships between law enforcement, public health, social services, and technology firms can lead to more effective responses to security challenges.
• Encourage Innovation with Ethical Oversight: Cities should create environments that encourage technological innovation while ensuring ethical considerations are at the forefront. This includes establishing review boards or committees to assess the implications of new technologies on civil liberties and community safety.
• Continuous Training and Education: Ongoing training for law enforcement and security personnel on the latest technologies, ethical considerations, and community engagement strategies is essential. This will ensure that those responsible for urban security are well-equipped to handle the evolving landscape of threats and opportunities.
• Focus on Vulnerable Populations: Urban security strategies should prioritize the needs of vulnerable populations, ensuring that their voices are heard in the planning process. This includes addressing issues of inequality and ensuring that security measures do not disproportionately impact marginalized communities.
• Integrate Community Policing: Community policing initiatives can foster trust between law enforcement and residents. By involving community members in safety discussions and decision-making processes, cities can create a more cooperative environment that enhances security and community relations.
• Invest in Training and Development: Continuous training for security personnel, including law enforcement and emergency responders, is essential. This training should encompass not only tactical skills but also cultural competency, mental health awareness, and de-escalation techniques to better serve diverse communities.
• Evaluate Technology Impact: Regular assessments of the impact of technology on urban security are essential. Cities should evaluate the effectiveness of surveillance systems, smart city technologies, and other digital tools to ensure they are enhancing safety without infringing on civil liberties. Feedback from the community can guide these evaluations and adjustments.
• Engage in International Collaboration: Cities can learn from global best practices by engaging in international collaborations focused on urban security. Sharing knowledge and strategies with other cities facing similar challenges can lead to innovative solutions and improved safety measures.
• Leverage Data Analytics for Crime Prevention: Utilizing data analytics can significantly enhance urban security efforts. By analyzing crime patterns and trends, cities can allocate resources more effectively, identify high-risk areas, and implement targeted interventions to prevent crime before it occurs.
• Conduct Regular Safety Audits: Regular safety audits of public spaces and facilities can help identify vulnerabilities and areas for improvement. These assessments should involve community input to ensure that the concerns of residents are addressed.
• Utilize Social Media for Safety Awareness: Leveraging social media platforms can enhance public awareness of safety issues and initiatives. Cities can use these channels to disseminate information, engage with residents, and promote safety campaigns effectively.

Conclusion

Urban security in the digital age demands a fundamental shift in approach. The rise of smart cities, IoT, AI, and big data has created new opportunities for enhancing security, but it has also introduced new risks. To protect urban populations and infrastructure, cities must adopt a holistic, integrated approach to security that combines physical, digital, and human elements. The future of urban security lies in proactive, technology-driven solutions that can anticipate and respond to threats in real time. By overcoming the challenges of cybersecurity, skill gaps, and regulatory hurdles, cities can build resilient security ecosystems capable of protecting citizens in an increasingly complex and interconnected world. Stakeholders must collaborate across sectors, leveraging technology and public engagement to create safer, smarter urban environments. By staying ahead of emerging threats and embracing innovation, cities can ensure that security keeps pace with the demands of the digital age. To overcome these challenges, cities must prioritize the development of strong cybersecurity frameworks that protect critical infrastructure from both physical and digital threats. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) can play a pivotal role in financing and deploying security technologies. By leveraging private-sector expertise and public resources, cities can implement advanced security solutions while sharing the financial burden. Continuous training and education programs for security personnel are essential. As technology evolves, so must be the skill sets of those responsible for urban security. Training initiatives should focus on AI, cybersecurity, and the integration of physical and digital security systems. Regulatory reforms are necessary to create a flexible legal environment that can adapt to new security challenges without infringing on privacy or civil liberties. Policymakers must strike a balance between security and individual rights, ensuring that security measures are effective yet respectful of personal freedoms. Cities must also focus on resource optimization. By sharing data and collaborating across sectors, urban security can become more efficient. Coordinated efforts between law enforcement, private security firms, and municipal agencies can lead to better outcomes at lower costs.

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